All horses are athletes. But, some start training younger and work harder than others. Horses being prepared for races or performance futurities are routinely asked to perform at maximal levels while still physically immature. Those horses must be fed for both growth and maximum performance. The production of superior athletes begins long before the futurity or race. Mares can produce stronger, healthier foals, if, even before conception, they are on optimum feeding programs. There is only limited information available from nutrition studies on young, growing, performing horses. So, many feeding recommendations are made based on extrapolations from studies using adult performance horses and non-performing growing horses. Following is a summary of studies helpful for the production of superior young athletes.

Hay Quality and Analysis
Good-quality hay is the cornerstone of any feeding program. When feeding for maximum performance, assumptions should not be made about hay quality. It is recommended that hays be analyzed to determine nutrient content (Lewis, 1995), since nutrient content of hays (NRC, 1989) and other feedstuffs (Berger, 1997) varies greatly. Average trace mineral concentrations in some common feedstuffs typically run only 40 to 70% of NRC table minimum values (NRC, 1989; Berger, 1997). Variation within samples of legume-grass forage for total digestible nutrients was 1.4-fold and for protein was 5-fold (comparing maximum value/minimum value from analysis). A 30- to 50-fold range in trace mineral concentration is common within a forage sample. When the maximum value was divided by the minimum value, the results were 46x for copper, 260x for iron, 44x for manganese, and 38x for zinc (Adams, 1975). When determining supplementation values, extra nutrients must be provided to allow for these variations in calculated nutrient values, yet meet requirements. Hay analysis is available from many universities and extension services and ADM Alliance Nutrition*.

Feeding Broodmares
The objective of a feeding program for broodmares is to provide all required nutrients and keep the mare at a desired body condition (Lewis, 1995). Mares should be moderately fleshy, but not fat, which means condition scores of 5-7 on the Henneke scale (NRC, 1989; Henneke et.al, 1983).

The mare's body weight and condition should be used to indicate the amount of dietary energy needed (Lewis, 1995). Because of differing nutrient needs of broodmares at different stages of pregnancy and lactation, at least three feeding programs are recommended (Lewis, 1995; Frape, 1986). 1) Mares that are barren, non-growing maiden, non-lactating and gestating prior to the last three months can be fed using National Research Council recommendations for maintenance (NRC, 1989) as minimum requirements. 2) Mares in the last three months of gestation have dietary energy requirements that progressively increase 10-20% during the last trimester. Protein, calcium, and phosphorus needs also increase (NRC, 1989). 3) Lactating mares have dietary energy requirements that increase by 80% over maintenance. Protein, calcium, and phosphorus needs also increase (NRC, 1989).

If allowed to, pregnant mares will often self-regulate their feeding and store some energy for later lactation (Powel et al., 1989). This is recommended as long as the mare is not over condition score 7 and does not severely over-eat. If adequate energy is not consumed or the mare is in thin condition, with a condition score below 5, decreased milk production and reproductive efficiency can result (Jordan, 1979; Banach et al., 1981; Gibbs et al., 1982; Gill et al., 1985). Also, inadequate intake of digestible energy (DE) or protein may prevent ovulation or result in early embryonic death (Kundsen and Bengtsson, 1963; Van Niekirk and van Heerden, 1972; Kubiak et al., 1989). Weight loss in pregnant mares can result in decreased colostrum and milk production leading to decreased passive immunity and growth rate in their foals (Banach et al., 1981). Obesity of mares can also result in decreased milk production (Kubiak et al., 1989).

During pregnancy, mares need to gain 9-12% of their body weight in foal tissue and placenta (Lewis, 1995). The amounts of additional protein, calcium, and phosphorus needed for fetal development and milk production are greater than the amount of additional energy needed, so increased percentages of these nutrients are needed in the diet (NRC, 1989).

All forages are generally too low in phosphorus, and grass forages don't provide enough calcium for mares during the last three months of pregnancy and lactation and hypomagnesemia (lactation tetany) and hypocalcemia (eclampsia) occasionally occur (Lewis, 1995). At these times, it is best to allow free access to a salt, calcium, and phosphorus source as the only salt source (Lewis, 1995) [GROSTRONG Minerals Products]. When consuming mature grasses and pasture, as in late fall and winter, mares also need supplementary protein and dietary energy (Gibbs and Davison, 1991) [PRO-VITA-MIN 20 Tubs]. If hay has adequate energy, but not protein, use 2 lb of a 25-30% protein supplement (Lewis, 1995) [GROSTRONG Mintrate or Patriot 36% Supplement] to increase the protein percentage in the total ration.

[NOTE: Information provided in square parentheses in this article concerns use of ADM Alliance Nutrition programs, products and services.]

Added dietary fat or oil is beneficial for pregnant and lactating mares, especially if increased weight gain is needed. Added fat (5%) in the diet of mares from two months before through two months after foaling increased milk fat content by 25% (Davison et al., 1991a) [GROSTRONG 13% Pelleted Feed, Patriot 12P and 14P, and Patriot Junior.

Several specific disorders can result from toxicity or nutritional deficiencies in pregnant and lactating mares. Vitamin A deficiency in foals results in increased risk of infectious diseases, particularly respiratory and diarrheal diseases. It can result from decreased vitamin A secretion into colostrum from deficient mares (Lewis, 1995). Vitamin E and selenium both serve as cellular antioxidants, but function in different parts of the cell. Selenium is a component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase and is located in the hydrophilic (water-containing) areas inside the cell. Vitamin E is located in the fat-soluble areas of the cell membrane. They act synergistically, meaning that an excess of one can partially, but not completely make up for a deficiency of the other. Inadequate selenium intake by the dam during pregnancy or inadequate selenium and/or vitamin E during lactation can result in vitamin E and/or selenium deficiency in foals from birth to one month of age (Lewis, 1995) [Vitamin A, vitamin E and selenium are provided in varying amounts in GROSTRONG Minerals products, Concentrated Energy Supplements, Specialized Energy Blends, and Fortified Feeds].

Vitamin E levels are low in mature forages (NRC, 1989). All broodmares not on pasture should receive at least 1000 IU/day of supplemental natural-source vitamin E [HEALTHY GLO^™ Nuggets, MOORGLO]. Specific recommendations for feeding broodmares are available in print form (Reynolds, 2003a) and online in the Technical Bulletins Section. .

General Recommendations for Feeding Growing Horses
The goal of feeding programs for growing horses is to achieve a steady growth rate from birth to maturity (Lewis, 1995). Several strategies are recommended including: Creep feeding of nursing foals; use of formulated, age-specific supplements; use of added dietary fat for more safely increasing the digestible energy (DE) of the ration; allowing unlimited access to grasses and limited access to legume forages based on DE requirements for weanlings; and allowing unlimited access to grass and legume forages for yearlings.

Supplementation of diets for growing horses is required, because protein, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper needs for rapid growth are frequently greater than the amounts of these nutrients present in cereal grains and most forages [GROSTRONG Minerals products, GROSTRONG Mintrate, ShowBoost, PRO-VITA-MIN 20 Tubs, Patriot 36% Supplement]. Digestible energy (DE) needs are greater than the amounts provided by forages. When less than the recommended amount of protein/Mcal DE is fed, feed consumption, protein digestibility, and growth rate may be reduced (Topliff et al., 1988). Inadequate amounts of DE will be consumed if the feed is too low in DE or protein (Thompson et al., 1988a). Weight gain and skeletal growth were reduced in horses fed inadequate protein compared to recommended amounts, but increased protein over recommendations did not affect weight gain or skeletal growth (Hintz, 1988). Also, concentrates should meet the need for lysine, the first limiting amino acid, or growth rate will be slowed (Lewis, 1995) [Patriot 16P Junior, PRO-VITA-MIN 20 Tubs].

Decreased dietary energy slows growth rate. A slower growth rate decreases the need for other nutrients and masks other nutrient deficiencies. If growth rate is slowed sufficiently, mature body size will be reduced (Lewis, 1995). However, developmental orthopedic diseases (DOD) are less likely to occur. At a faster or normal growth rate, if dietary deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, copper, or zinc are present, DOD can occur. Even without these deficiencies, excessive dietary energy results in a predisposition to DOD. Bone growth and size increase, but bones are more porous (Thompson et al., 1988b). This results in increased susceptibility to "bucked shins" or stress fractures of the cannon bone (Nunamaker, 1986). A calcium or phosphorus deficiency can also decrease growth, and decreased height gain is a result of insufficient dietary phosphorus (Gibbs et al., 1989). It is recommended that the only salt source available also contain calcium, phosphorus, copper, and zinc, and also selenium in areas with known selenium deficiency (Lewis, 1995) [GROSTRONG Minerals Products]. Growing horses should not be expected to consume enough minerals free choice, since they tend to be picky eaters compared to mature horses.

Do not give excess grain to growing horses. Fat or oil may be added as described elsewhere (Reynolds, 2002b) to supply additional energy. Up to 10% fat is well accepted and will increase growth rate and feed efficiency and decrease feed requirements of both weanlings and yearlings without any detrimental effects (Scott et al., 1989; Davison et al., 1991b). High-fat rations may also help prevent DOD. One possible method is that fat decreases post-feeding insulin secretion (Stull and Rodiek, 1988) which decreases the conversion of the thyroid hormone thyroxin (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), resulting in higher plasma T4 and lower T3 concentrations, which have been shown to be a factor in DOD (Glade et al., 1984). A link between feeding high-starch meals, chronic hyperinsulinemia and DOD has also recently been reported by Ralston (1999). By lowering starch content of feeds for growing horses, insulin can be lowered, thus decreasing DOD in susceptible horses [GROSTRONG 13% Pelleted Feed, Patriot 16P Junior, HEALTHY GLO^™, MOORGLO, ShowBoost]. Specific recommendations for feeding growing horses are available in print form (Reynolds, 2002) and online at www.admani.com/AllianceEquine in the Technical Bulletins Section.

Finally, growing horses should be fed individually whenever possible. The effects, of the normal pecking order, on feed intake, in horse herds, are more detrimental in rapidly growing horses than other horses. Young horses can't successfully compete with mature horses for food.

Feeding Nursing Foals
Milk from well-fed normal mares meets foals' needs for about two months (Schryver et al., 1986). Normal foals will consume 20-25% of their body weight daily in milk for the first five weeks and 17-20% thereafter (Oftedal et al., 1983). The more milk consumed, the less feed will be consumed. Un-supplemented foals will eat something, ie. grass, straw, manure, or whatever else is available. Most foals will nibble on the mare's grain and will progressively eat more, but at five months will eat only 50% of the time compared to 70% for the mare (Crowell-Davis et al., 1985). [Broodmares and nursing foals on pasture benefit from the 24 hours/seven days per week access to high-quality protein and minerals when offered PRO-VITA-MIN 20 Tubs].

Foals should be creep fed a well-balanced diet as young as possible, at least by one month of age. This helps ensure that they are consuming adequate amounts of feed when mares' milk ceases to meet their needs at about two months. Even as young as three weeks of age, the foal's efficiency of concentrate utilization is high, with the foal gaining about 1 lb for each 4 lb of concentrate consumed. Feed efficiency is 1 lb of gain per 7 lb of concentrate at four months (Harper, 1989). Creep feeding eases the transition at weaning and meets the needs not supplied by milk after two months. Creep feeding a well-balanced diet helps prevent growth spurts, which increase the risk of DOD and should be avoided.

There was no difference in average daily gain before one month in creep fed vs. control foals, but from one to two months of age, average daily gain was 2.54 lb/d vs. 2.07 and from two to three months, 2.96 and 1.36 lb/d, respectively (Zimmerman, 1995). In another study with Thoroughbred foals aged four months until weaning, creep fed foals gained 2.2 lb/d vs. 1.8 lb/d for controls (Pagan et al., 1993).
[Creep feeds can consist of Patriot 16P or combinations of Showboost or GROSTRONG Mintrate with SENIORGLO, POWERGLO, GROSTRONG 13% Pelleted Feed, Patriot Performance Horse Feeds or other FORAGE FIRST Fortified Feeds. For help developing creep feeds for foals, call the Equine Nutrition Helpline at 1 (800) 680-8254.]

Feeding Weanlings and Yearlings
Weanlings often can have free access to grass forages, but not legumes. Weanlings can consume 20-50% more DE than required for moderate growth and maximum potential mature size if given unlimited access to legume forages and/or grain concentrates. Excessive DE intake can result in DOD (Cymbaluk, 1989). Limit legumes to the amount needed to meet DE recommendations for moderate to rapid growth (Lewis, 1995).

Yearlings can usually have unlimited access to legume forages because they are unlikely to over-consume DE (Lewis, 1995). A fast growth-rate does not increase mature size, but increases the risk of DOD. However, the risk of DOD is reduced after one year of age, since 90% of growth occurs during the first year. Also, most of the deposition of bone mineral content occurs by one year, but bone mineral content peaks at three to four years of age (Lawrence and Ott, 1987).

Protein percentage in the concentrate should be determined considering protein content and rate of intake of the forage and age of the horse. Young horses are not as efficient at digesting protein from forages, so they must be offered high-quality protein in concentrate form [PRO-VITA-MIN 20 Tubs, ShowBoost, GROSTRONG Mintrate, Patriot 36% Supplement]. Be sure to follow feeding recommendations and monitor each horse individually.

[ADM Alliance Nutrition growing horse feeds are Patriot 16P, SENIORGLO, POWERGLO, GROSTRONG 13% Pelleted Feed, Patriot Performance Horse Feeds and other FORAGE FIRST Fortified Feeds alone or in combination with HEALTHY GLO^™, MOORGLO, Showboost and/or GROSTRONG Mintrate.

Feeding Fat for Growth and Performance
Horse owners add fats and oils to horse rations to prevent sifting of ingredients in the mix, carry fat-soluble vitamins, and improve hair coat. However, the most important functions of fat in horse diets are to increase energy density of the diet and to lessen the risk of colic, founder, gastric ulcers, and exertional myopathies (tying-up) induced by high-grain rations. The purposes of increasing the energy density of the diet are to increase athletic performance potential, increase milk production, increase reproductive efficiency, increase growth rate, and/or maintain or increase body weight during hot, humid weather or extreme activity.

Skeptics of the added-fat movement often state that fat is an un-natural feed for horses. However, the dry matter content of mare’s milk is about 17% fat in early lactation and decreases to 14% at 21 weeks (NRC, 1989). Therefore, all horses begin life on ‘high-fat’ diets. Interestingly, horses can utilize up to 20% added fat in the total ration without adverse effects (NRC, 1989; Hambleton et al., 1990). And, muscle glycogen increased with the use of up to 10-12% added fat, but began to decrease with 15-20% added fat in the total diet (Pagan et al., 1987; Meyers et al., 1989; Hambleton, 1990; Oldham, 1990).

The benefits of fat in growing and performance horse rations are well documented. They include increased energy available for growth, lactation, and physical activity even without an increase in dietary energy intake (Kane et al., 1979; McCann, 1987; Scott et al., 1993), decreased total body heat production by 14% and increased net energy available for production from 16% to 36% of DE intake (Scott et al., 1993) resulting in a 60% increase in net energy for production, when DE intake was unchanged; and decreased DE requirement for the same amount of activity (Meyers et al., 1989; Potter et al., 1990).

In a number of studies, fat digestibility has run between 76 to 94% with up to 20% added fat in the ration. However, fat digestibility was less from animal than vegetable sources (Potter et al., 1992). Fat sources differ primarily in degree of saturation (number of double bonds). Animal fats tend to be less pure, have a shorter shelf life and may not be as palatable. Most importantly, fats should be free of oxidative rancidity as indicated by a peroxide value of less than 20 mEq/kg (Cuaron, 1992). Fats and oils generally cost two to fives times more per unit of weight compared to cereal grains, but provide about three times more available energy. Therefore, on a DE basis, they are usually comparable in cost.

Stabilized rice bran is a relatively new fat source (20%), which comes in a highly digestible extruded meal or nugget**. [See Technical Bulletins Section for more information about HEALTHY GLO^™ Stabilized rice bran and other fat sources for horses.] In studies with exercising horses, feeding stabilized rice bran resulted in increased apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, gross energy, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, and either extract (Miller and Thompson, 1996) and lower plasma lactate accumulation and heart rates during exercise (Kennedy et al., 1999). Normal horses and horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy have had reduced episodes of recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis (tying-up) and exhibited increased exercise tolerance when fed stabilized rice bran (Valberg et al., 1992; Valberg 1995).

Specific feeding recommendations for feeding fats and oils to horses are available in print form (Reynolds, 2003b) and online in the Technical Bulletins Section.

Feeding Growing Athletes
Horses that are growing and performing need optimum amounts of nutrients, not minimums. Unfortunately, optimum amounts have not been determined in most situations. The NRC (1989) lists minimum requirements of nutrients for horses by class of horse. Minimum requirements for growing, exercising horses have been challenged recently. Two-year-old horses had decreased bone density of the third metacarpal bone during early training when fed at about NRC minimum requirement of calcium (Nielsen et al, 1997). However, young (2-3), mature (7-11) and aged (15-21) exercising horses all retained more calcium when fed 275% NRC minimum vs. 133% of calcium (Buchholz-Bryant et al., 2001). Further studies are needed to determine optimum amounts of calcium and other nutrients for growing athletes.

A series of studies with two-year-old racing Quarter Horses showed that feeding bioavailable silicon in the form of Sodium Zeolite A (SZA) increased plasma silicon concentrations (Frey et al, 1991) and was not detrimental as determined by ten physiological parameters (Reynolds et al., 1993). And, overall injury rates were improved in treated horses: control 61.5%, low treatment 38.5%, high treatment 33.3%, and medium treatment 22.2% (Nielsen et al., 1993).

Summary
Growing athletes require optimal nutrition from conception to competition. Broodmares should be maintained at 5-7 condition score and fed optimal, rather than minimal amounts of protein, vitamins and minerals. Growing horses should be creep fed, then supplemented with feeds made appropriately for their age and weight. Energy, protein, vitamins and minerals for growing athletes must be balanced and fed in optimal amounts. In most situations, added fat should be used in rations for broodmares, growing horses and growing athletes. Further research is required to define optimum amounts of nutrients.

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